Criminology
Dave is befuddled by this. Her friend Brin is currently serving time in jail for stealing some money from another person. Dave is at a loss to understand what motivated Brin to commit such a serious offence. Why would Brin turn to a life of crime when Dave has always done what's right? What makes them unique from one another?
Criminology is the academic study of criminal behaviour and legal retribution. It investigates the question, "Why do people commit crimes?" and attempts to provide an answer. Attempting to provide an answer to that question can obviously be done in a variety of ways. Let's take a more in-depth look at one school of thought, specifically the positivist school of criminology, as well as the various varieties of positivism.
Positivism
When Dave considers what Brin did, her first line of reasoning is that he must have concluded that the gain in financial standing was worth the risk of being caught and punished. She believes that in order for him to have committed the crime despite knowing the potential consequences of being caught, he must have given some thought to those outcomes. But then Dave contemplates her own existence. Even if she was desperately in need of money and the likelihood of her being caught was extremely low, she would never steal.
Two of the most influential schools of thought in the field of criminology are represented by these two distinct perspectives on criminal behaviour. People are rational, and before committing a crime, they will consider the benefits and drawbacks of doing so, according to the traditional school of thought in criminology. The classical school of thought holds that an individual is more likely to commit the crime if the positives outweigh the negatives in their case. Classical theorist Dave demonstrates her way of thinking when she concludes that Brin must have carefully considered his alternatives before making the decision to commit the crime.
But then Dave has the realisation that she would never commit the crime, despite the fact that the potential benefits would far outweigh the potential consequences. The positivist theory of crime receives support from this evidence. According to the tenets of the positivist school of criminology, criminals behave in a unique way that is distinct from that of non-criminals, and they also possess their own unique set of characteristics.
Positivism in its Various Forms
Dave's thoughts are becoming increasingly consistent with those of a positivist theorist. As a result of the fact that she believes Brin to be fundamentally distinct from herself, she has come to the conclusion that perhaps criminals and non-criminals really are distinct from one another. But what exactly makes them unique from one another? Why does Brin act the way that he does, and why does Dave act the way that she does? Biological, psychological, and sociological positivism are the three primary categories of positivism, which can be further subdivided into one of two modern positivist schools of criminology (individual and sociological). The following are some of them:
1. According to the biological positivist theory, people commit crimes because they have a biological disorder or because they have inferior biological characteristics. It's possible that this is due to a specific gene, but it could also be a difference in their physiology or the way their brain works. For instance, it's possible that Brin's brain lacks activity in the region that's responsible for encouraging empathy; as a result, he's more willing to hurt other people in order to get what he wants. The biological viewpoint can be traced back to Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician and phrenologist who, in the middle of the 1800s, first hypothesised that there were likely biological differences between criminals and non-criminals. Lombroso is credited with being the founder of the biological perspective. As a phrenologist, he was under the impression that particular bumps and ridges on a person's skull could provide insight into the individual's natural propensities toward criminal behaviour. Such early research has been relegated to the status of pseudoscience and is no longer considered to be valid. While more recent research may link characteristics such as physical size and the likelihood of aggressive behaviour, such early research is no longer considered to be valid.
The modern positivist theory refutes the idea that certain physical traits are linked to criminal behaviour. Instead, it places an emphasis on determining the external and internal factors that lead individuals to engage in criminal behaviour.
2. The theory of psychological positivism asserts that people commit crimes as a result of psychological problems such as failures in psychological development and the acquisition of aggressive behaviours through experience. For instance, Brin may have experienced a traumatic event in the past, which led to the formation of his aggressive behaviour. Alternatively, Brin may not have fully developed his capacity for empathy, which led to his behaviour. Because they focus on individuals and what motivates them to commit crimes, the biological and psychological perspectives are categorised together under the term "individual positivism," which is an umbrella term for the two perspectives.
3. Sociological positivism is the belief that the likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour can be influenced by societal factors. Sociological factors that contribute to criminal behaviour can include things like low levels of education and exposure to alcohol. For instance, Brin may believe that he is helplessly ensnared in a cycle of poverty from which he cannot escape. It's possible that this will drive him to the point where he steals. The contributions of Adolphe Quetelet and Andre-Michel Guerry were pivotal in the development of sociological positivism. In the same vein as Lombroso, these researchers worked in the 19th century to demonstrate that people who commit crimes are fundamentally distinct from those who do not. On the other hand, they zeroed in on the aspects of society that are more likely to push a person over the edge and into a life of crime.
Conclusion
Criminology is the academic study of criminal behaviour and legal retribution. However, the positivist school of criminology places an emphasis on the ways in which criminals and non-criminals are fundamentally distinct from one another. The classical school of criminology holds the belief that people commit crimes because they are acting rationally. There are three primary categories of positivism: biological, psychological, and sociological. Biological positivism investigates the biological and genetic differences between criminals; psychological positivism investigates topics such as psychological issues in criminals; and sociological positivism investigates the aspects of society that may contribute to criminal behaviour. The work of Cesare Lombroso, who advocated for biological positivism, Adolphe Quetelet and Andre-Michel Guerry, who concentrated on sociological positivism, and others from the 19th century forms the foundation of the positivist school of thought. However, the central tenet of the contemporary positivist theory of crime is the idea that individuals who commit crimes do so as a result of factors that are beyond their control. In doing so, the modern positivist theory of crime rejects the purported physiological connections that were proposed by its ideological forebears.
Outcomes of Reading
As a result of going through this reading, you should be able to:
- Define criminology
- Make a distinction between the positivist school of criminology and the classical school of criminology.
- Give an account of the three primary strains of positivism.
- Find out who some of the most influential positivist thinkers were.